Enzymes Reactions Lab!

A couple of weeks ago we did a lab about enzyme reactions.  We tested the levels of pressure when yeast was mixed with a variety of different mixtures.  In the first graph shown we tested the levels of pressure with 5 droplets of yeast, 20 droplets of yeast, and 45 droplets of yeast.  The mixture that had the highest slope of pressure was the one with 20 droplets of yeast.

In the graph to the right, we measured the levels of pressures of yeast mixed with different levels of pH.  The enzyme reaction was the highest with a pH level of 4.

  The graph on the left shows pressure with different temperature levels.  We experimented with yeast and water mixed at room temperature, cold temperature, and hot temperature.  According to our observations the yeast had the most pressure at hot temperatures.  

Photosynthesis and Respiration :)

Kelsea and I did this one together, so check out our awesome prezis! :)

http://prezi.com/fsaeelbu_vmt/respiration/

Respiration! on Prezi

Photosynthesis! :) on Prezi

Dry Lab!

So to be honest, it's taken me like a week to figure out what in the world a dry lab is and how to even do it.  But now after time, I figured it out, I think!  So here goes nothing!

First of all you need to get four clean test tubes, a bottle of bromothymol blue, access to water, straws, snails, and elodea (plant).

Now take one clean test tube and fill it up halfway full with water.  Place 30 drops of the bromothymol blue into the test tube and get your straw.  No you're not going to drink it.  Take the straw and blow bubbles into the mixture in the test tube.  Record your observations.

Next, grab the second test tube also filling it halfway full with water.  Just like the previous step, place 30 drops of bromothymol blue into the water.  But, instead of blowing bubbles, place a snail into the test tube.  After 3-5 minutes record observations and remove the snail.

Then, take the third test tube, fill it halfway full with water and place 30 drops of bromothymol blue into the water in the test tube.   Now, insert one elodea (plant) into the test tube mixture.  Place it in an area with sunlight. After 3-5 minutes record your observations and remove the plant.

Finally, take the last tube and fill it halfway full of water, placing 30 drops of bromothymol blue into the test tube.  After that take one snail and one elodea into the test tube.  Take the test tube into a very dark area with no sunlight whatsoever!  After 3-5 minutes record your observations.  Don't forget to take the snail and elodea out after though! 

OBSERVATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS!
In step one the mixture begins as a blue color because of the bromothymol blue.  After blowing bubbles into the mixture, it turns to a light greenish yellow color.  This is caused from carbon dioxide being in the water which produces carbonic acid. 
In step two, the water will begin to turn a light color.  It changes to a light color because the snail is constantly respiring. 
In step three, the water turns a blue-green color.  The carbon dioxide and the water yield sugar and oxygen when chlorophyll and sunlight are around. 
In step four, the water will change into a yellow color.  This is because there is no sunlight which means the plant is unable to photosynthesize.  The plant is always creating carbon dioxide, along with the snail also in the tube.  The water turns acidic because of the abundant amount of CO2, causing the yellow coloring of the mixture.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome! :(

Imagine, going out to a party where there is alcohol involved and you see a soon to be mother picking up a beer. What would you do? Would you let her in on the potentially fatal effects it could have on her baby or would you sit back and not speak for a little child that can't voice their own opinion? Drinking alcohol while being pregnant can cause miscarriages, stillbirth or premature delivery. It can also cause fetal alcohol syndrome which affects the growth, mental and physical aspects of a baby when a mother drinks alcohol while she is pregnant. The use of alcohol during pregnancy can cause the same risks as using alcohol in general. Although, it poses more risks to the fetus. When a woman that is pregnant drinks alcohol, it smoothly passes across the placenta to the fetus. Drinking can harm the baby's development because of this. A pregnant woman who drinks any alcohol is at risk, because there is no "safe" level of alcohol use while pregnant. Larger amounts of alcohol do appear to increase the problems. Binge drinking has more severe effects to the fetus than drinking small amounts of alcohol. The timing of alcohol consumption is also very critical. Drinking any alcoholic substance appears to be the most harmful during the first three months of pregnancy.

A baby that may have fetal alcohol syndrome may have many different symptoms.  Babies could have poor growth while he or she is in the womb and after birth.  The baby could also have decreased muscle tone and poor coordination.  Another symptom would be delayed development and significant functional problems in three or more major areas such as thinking, speech, movement, or social skills for the age of the baby.  Heart defects could also occur such as ventricular septal defect or atrial septal defect.  Babies with fetal alcohol syndrome could have narrow, small eyes with large epicanthal folds, a small head, upper jaw, a smooth groove in upper lip, and a smooth and thin upper lip.

Many tests and exams can be taken to reveal if a newborn has fetal alcohol syndrome.  A physical exam of the baby could possibly show a heart murmur or other problems relating to the heart.  As the baby begins to develop there might be signs of delayed mental development.  There is also the possibility of facial or skeleton damages.  Tests that can be taken are the blood alcohol level in soon to be mothers who show signs of being under the influence.  Brain imaging studies such as a CT or MRI can be taken to show abnormal brain development.  An ultrasound shows slowed growth of the fetus also.  Women who are pregnant or trying to be should avoid drinking any alcoholic substance.  Pregnant women that suffer from alcoholism should join an alcohol abuse rehabilitation group and be monitored closely by a health care provider throughout her pregnancy.

Now back to the question, would you voice your opinion about the pregnant women drinking alcohol at the party and speak up for the little baby inside of her with no chance?  All I can say after reading this is that women who are pregnant please don't drink or do drugs including smoking, your baby doesn't want to have to go through the problems you will press upon them.  Let them have a fair chance at living. 

Here are some photos of fetal alcohol syndrome....

 

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premature baby with FAS



6 month old baby's brain (left)
6 month old baby's brain, suffering from FAS (right)

here is my link to all the info I got! :)

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000911.htm

PHENYLKETONURIA

What in the world is phenylketonuria?! First of all, I don't even know how to pronounce that gigantic complicated word and second of all I honestly have no clue what it is, but I was able to find out by doing a little research.  Well, phenylketonuria also known as PKU is a disease that is caused by a inherited disorder in the way our bodies process proteins.  The main villain in this disease is in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase(PAH).  This enzyme is found in the liver and its job is to convert phenylalanine into another amino acid, tyrosine.  The phenylalanine builds up in the body to explicitly high levels.  This causes the body to go into a state called hyperphenylalaninaemia (may i mention that's a HUMONGOUS word!)  Anyways this state can be caused by other diseases besides PKU!  This can cause damage to your brain tissue.
Back in the day, before the smart people figured out what PKU was, children with the disease were generally placed in an institutional care place as a result of their severe mental retardation and many convulsions.  The better news about this is that if they were diagnosed early the effects of PKU can be reduced tremendously by removing phenylalanine from the diet of newborn babies.  This has lead to the bringing about of extensive screening programs in the UK and other countries.  The number of people suffering from the effects of PKU has lowered by a very large amount.  There has also been evidence spotted that hyperphenylalaninaemia in pregnant women with PKU may cause maternal phenylketonuria which results in symptoms in the child alike to those in PKU irrespective of the child's PKU status.

Children that may have PKU can have symptoms such as a smaller sized head, epilepsy, and mental retardation.  The abundant amount of phenylalanine creates a musty odor and the tyrosine deficiency causes lighter hair and skin.

Doctors diagnose patients by carrying out the Guthrie test.  The Guthrie test detects high levels of pheynylpyruvic acid in the blood during the first week of life.  Blood is taken from a small needle prick in the heel and dried on filter paper so that phenylalanine concentration can be measured.  Now pre-natal diagnosis is available and carried out by chorionic villus sampling, although it is not requested often as families tend not to view a positive test as cause for abortion.  PKU must be spotted fast so that treatment can begin within the first 20 days of life.  When carrying out the diagnosis it can also help to calculate the amount of protein ingested and a measure of plasma amino acids.  If there is a defect in biopterin metabolism the treatment will be different as a low phenylalanine diet is not helpful.

Treatments for PKU is usually a diet of low phenylalanine.  Newborns should be started on this diet if their blood phenylalanine levels are greater than 600 micro moles/liter.  They should also begin treatment if concentrations are between 400 and 600 micro moles/liter for their first few days of life.

Cell Structure

After looking at many diagrams of cells I learned some specific parts of the cell.  If you follow the link you can see my Glog about cell structure! (click the word Glog) :)

Cystic Fibrosis :/

Many people don't even know what Cystic Fibrosis is, but at the same time, many people of all ages are being diagnosed every year.  Cystic fibrosis is a long-term disease that takes a toll on the lungs and digestive system of about 30,000 children and adults in the United States alone.  Overall there are around 70,000 diagnosed around the world.  In CF, a defective gene and its protein product cause the body to make unusually thick, sticky mucus that plugs up the lungs and can lead to fatal lung infections, and it also obstructs the pancreas and prohibits natural enzymes from assisting the body in breaking down and absorbing food.  In the 1950s, very few children lived to go to elementary school if they had cystic fibrosis.  Advances in research and medical treatments have further enhanced and extended life for children and adults that had CF.  Many people who are diagnosed with this deadly disease can now live into their 30s, 40s or older.  About 1,000 new cases of CF are diagnosed every year, and more than 70% of patients are diagnosed by the time they turn two.  However, more than 45% of the cystic fibrosis patients are 18 or older.  Unfortunately, the predicted median age of survival for a person suffering from cystic fibrosis is in the mid-30s.  People that have cystic fibrosis can have many different symptoms which may or may not include: very salty-tasting skin; persistent coughing, with phlegm; many lung infections; wheezing or shortness of breath; little growth/weight gain in spite of a healthy appetite; and other symptoms.
In the early 1980s, researchers found that the outer membranes of cells from people with the disease are poorly permeable to chloride ions, but biochemical analysis failed to identify the defective protein.  In 1985, they pinpointed the mutation to a small region located on chromosome 7.  The final breakthrough came in 1989, when the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis was finally isolated.  This is known as one of the most significant discoveries in the history of human genetics.  It led to improving the diagnosis of the disorder and improved the genetic counseling offered to affected families.  However, CF is a very complicated disease.  Not all of the the cystic fibrosis cases are caused by the same genetic defect.  About 800 different mutations have been identified in the CF gene, which affects the proper functioning of the CFTR, which is the Cystic Fibrosis transmembrane regulator protein.  The CFTR controls the flow of chloride ions from the cell.   The picture below shows the section through the cell membrane of an epithelial cell.  The CF transmembrane regulator channel is open in the image.

Cystic fibrosis generally happens in white people of northern European ancestry, occurring in about 1 out of 3,000 child births.  In the earlier days, people with this deadly disease died in their teens.  Improved screening and treatments now allow many people with cystic fibrosis to live into their 50s or older.

Tests that can be done in a lab are newborn screening tests, sweat tests, genetic testing, sputum tests, and organ function tests.  Imaging tests can be done by x-rays, computerized tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging.  There is also a lung function test which measures the size of your lungs, how much air you can breathe in and out, how fast you can inhale and exhale, and how well your lungs deliver oxygen to your blood.

Overall, Cystic Fibrosis is a very fatal and costly disease to patients and their families.  I learned that people with cystic fibrosis have a very tough life and it makes me realize that I take many things for granted that I never even thought about, such as breathing.  People suffering from CF have a hard time doing sports and even the small things like, walking.  Cystic Fibrosis attacks your lungs and makes you hack up gross mucus and keeps young kids from doing the things that I enjoyed while I was young.  After reading about this fatal disease, I am thankful for having good health and my heart goes out to those suffering from it.

Cell Membranes in a Fluid Mosaic Model :)

Lately in Biology we have been learning about the cell membrane and what exactly is in the cell membrane!  The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer.  The phospholipid bilayer has hydrophobic tails, which means they are attracted to water.  The phospholipid bilayer also has hydrophilic heads, making them scared of water.  Inside the phospholipid bilayer there are glycoprotein, proteins, cholesterol, glycolipids, carbohydrates, and many others.  In the cell membrane there is a protein channel.  After reading the word protein channel, using common knowledge, I just thought it was a type of system that carried along proteins throughout the membrane.  Well, in scientific terms, the protein channel are cells that create and install their own protein channels which are also called membrane structure, because cells need a way to move useful substances into themselves and pump the waste outside.  The proteins act like little machines moving around other molecules.  I also learned that carbohydrate chains serve as recognition makers.  We created cell membrane posters and labeled everything that was in a cell membrane.

Collagen :)

Many people may say what is collagen and why would we need to know anything about it, right?  Well it turns out collagen is EXTREMELY important to our bodies.  Collagen forms molecular cables that build up our tendons and have vast, resilient sheets that support our skin and internal organs.  Collagen is made up of three amino acids called glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline.  

Vitamin C plays a very important part in the formation of collagen.  Vitamin C helps in the addition of oxygen.  If a person doesn't get enough vitamin C in their diet the production of hydroxyproline and stops the making of new collagen.  This could cause scurvy, which is a severe disease.

Polypeptide chains are arranged by having every third amino acid as a glycine, and many of the remaining amino acids are proline or hydroxyproline.  

Osteogenesis Imperfecta is a bone disease and it is also referred to as the "brittle bone disease."  The main symptom of OI is bone fractures.  However, many other symptoms can occur such as: muscle weakness, hearing loss, fatigue, joint laxity, and scoliosis.  There are eight types of Osteogenesis Imperfecta.  Type I OI is the least severe and most common form of the disorder.  OI Type I is the differs from the other types of OI because the collagen structure remains normal.  OI Type II is the most severe form.  

The role of collagen in bones is very important because your collagen levels predict the strength of your bones.  Collagen problems often lead to bone problems because if you have an insufficient level of collagen, your bones are going to be weak and have "brittle bones", which means they break and fracture easily.

Overall, I learned that collagen is very important to know about and it is crucial to our bodies.  If we don't have sufficient levels of collagen we will have weak bones!!! :)

Untangling the Twisted Proteins that turn Brains into Sponge-Research Article

Just recently, there was a study about what causes mad cow disease and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease which are fatal brain disorders.  These diseases are not caused by viruses or bacterium.  Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and mad cow disease are caused by an abnormal formation of a protein called a prion.  Scientists and other studies are beginning to reveal that the prions help natural functions perform before they turn to the "dark side."  Jiyan Ma, a molecular biochemist at OSU, and colleagues transformed a normal protein made by E. coli bacteria into a prion that had the properties of the infectious version.  It starts out by forming clumps, declines being cut by enzymes, and changes other healthy proteins into the aberrant form.  Jiyan Ma and his colleagues injected the prion into the brains of mice, which caused their brains to become spongy and full of holes, initiating telltale signs of prion disease.  Their next step is to take a closer look at the system they used to make infectious prions to identify the molecular mechanisms behind the change.

In another experiment, researches in the U.S. and Austria used a prion protein also made by E. coli to contaminate hamsters with a transmissible brain disease.  The diseases worsened very gradually, similar to how it progresses in humans, referring that hamsters could provide a useful animal model system.

While most research is about the disease-causing prion protein, Adriano Aguzzi of University Hospital of Zurich is looking at the healthy forms of those proteins in humans.  He found that mice who laked those proteins showed a failure of the protective myelin sheath on their nerves.  The main task now is to find out why this protein goes bad at times.

http://discovermagazine.com/2010/jun/04-untangling-prions-twisted-proteins-brains-into-sponge

Carbohydrates :)

In boring terms, a carbohydrate is an organic compound Cm(H20)n, made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In easier and more understanding terms, carbohydrates are what gives our bodies energy.  In our lab we tested many different things such as honey, all the way to lactose powder.  I learned that when a disaccharide is mixed with Benedict's solution it does not change in color, when a monosaccharide is combined with Benedict's solution it turns an orange color, and when a polysaccharide is mixed with Benedict's solution, the ending result is a dark, thick substance.  Attached is a concept map of other things I have learned throughout the lesson.

Reflection on Stomach Acids

Lately in Biology we have been experimenting with stomach acids and what works to calm an upset stomach.  My group and I tested different types of antacids by placing two tablets into vinegar.  An antacid is any type of base or basic substance that neutralizes stomach acidity.  I learned that an acid is any substance that has a pH of six or lower.  Acids become less acidic when mixed in with a substance that is a base.  An acid increases the concentration of hydrogen ions, but bases lower the concentration of hydrogen ions, because they accept them.  A base is a substance which has a pH between eight and fourteen.  A base becomes less basic when mixed with acidic substances.  Pure water, on the other hand, is neutral because it maintains a pH of 7.  The pH is calculated in logarithmic units of ten in the acidity or baseness of a substance.  For example, orange juice is ten times more acidic than tomato juice, because orange juice has a pH of three while tomato juice has a pH of four.  

Antacids help calm the acids that are in your abdomen.  I found out that about the only difference in generic brands and name brands of antacids is the price.  So, next time you go to the store to buy antacids, don't fall for the expensive brand, because in all actuality they work the same. 

Acids in Your Tummy!!!!

Last Thursday we did a lab about stomach acids testing the different antacids.  Check out our AMAZING powerpoint we created! :)





After our lab, I learned that even the generic brands of antacids work the same.   Companies just want you to buy their product at a higher price, attempting you to believe that their product is better.

Properties of Water

Recently in Biology we have been studying the properties of water, and we did a lab focusing on three properties.  In the lab, we did a trial on the surface tension in water, using pennies.  The experiment required you to place as many droplets as you could onto a single penny without them falling off.  I learned that a penny can hold quite a few droplets because of surface tension.  In the next experiment we had to place a drop of water onto a piece of wax paper.  Using a toothpick, we had to split the drop of water in half.  As we were attempting to split it in half, the tiny droplet would not split; but it would simply just slide along the wax paper staying together which helped us examine the cohesion process.  The last part of the lab we experimented with a beaker of water, a string, and an empty beaker.  In this lab, Kelsea and I had to figure out how to take the water from the full beaker and run it down the  string to the empty beaker.  We figured out that in order to get the water to travel down the piece of string, we had to change the position of how the water was poured.  We finally discovered that if you hold the empty beaker directly below the string and beaker of water, and the full beaker, the water should travel directly down the string into the empty beaker.
While watching and observing the videos Water and Life: Overview and The Nature of Water, I learned many different things, along with definitions of certain words.  I observed that water is a solvent meaning it's chemical composition does not change when dissolved into another substance.  The molecular formula of water is H20 which means that the chemical composition of water consists of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms.  I also found out there are two types of polarity which are bond polarity and molecular polarity.  Water exemplifies bond polarity because the oxygen atom and hydrogen atom are not evenly distributed among the two atoms.  They are closer to the oxygen atom than they are the hydrogen atom.  Water also shows molecular polarity because of it's bent shape.  Without a net "pull" in a direction, the molecule will not be polar.

                                                as shown above water molecules are bent




WORDS OF KNOWLEDGE

*Adhesion-The attractive force between molecules in one phase and different molecules in another phase.

*Cohesion-The attractive force between similar molecules in the same phase

-Sum of hydrogen bonds

*Hydrogen Bond-A weak to moderate attractive force between a hydrogen atom bonded to oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine, and an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom on another atom.

-Usually represented by dotted lines

*Hydrophilic-Water-loving; easily dissolves in water

*Hydrophobic-Water-fearing; doesn’t dissolve in water

-ex: oil

*Polar Covalent Bond- A molecule where electrons are shared between the two atoms.  One atom is more electronegative than the other which causes the electrons to pull closer to it.  Partial charges are formed which creates dipole.

*Solvent-A liquid which dissolves another substance without any change in its chemical composition.

*Specific Heat-The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a 1-gram sample of a substance by 1 degree Celsius

*Surface Tension-The energy needed to increase the surface area of a liquid by a given amount.

*Electronegativity-The tendency of an atom in a bond to attract shared bonding electrons

European Corn Borer/Clinical Trial

The past few days in Bio 111 we have been working on and studying about clinical trials. I also did a virtual lab from the textbook called "How does the European Corn Borer Affect the Yield of Corn"?  designed to help with identifying dependent and independent variables.  I learned about a double-blind clinical trial which means neither the volunteer participating in the clinical trial nor the physician or doctor know what type of medicine or cure they are going to be using.   In the virtual lab I learned that certain types of corn resist pests better than others and that nowadays, corn plants have been genetically engineered and selectively bred in order to resist insect pests better.  I also found out that a control is the variable in an experiment which never changes.  I learned that with a low infestation of insects corn yields tend to be a bit higher and when the infestation levels are high, corn yields are comparably low.